In contexts where farmers are trying to grow other crops, millets are frequently considered weeds. This is the case with Echinochloa species (the barnyard millet complex, including wild relatives) and rice cultivation in the US. Echinochloa, remember, is a genus with tolerance for flooding / waterlogging. The following article does a deep dive into Echinochloa spp. & rice cultivation, including detailed discussions of selected species and subspecies of the former: Godar, Amar S., and Jason K. Norsworthy. 2023. “Echinochloa in Mid-Southern U.S. and California Rice: What Is Known and What Are the Knowledge Gaps?” *Weed Technology* 37(4): 452–69. doi: 10.1017/wet.2023.52. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/weed-technology/article/echinochloa-... According to that article, seeds of more than one Echinochloa species apparently accompanied rice seed brought to California. While commercial rice production in that state became established only in the early 20th century,efforts to grow rice there began decades earlier, with a Chinese connection. See "History" at https://www.usarice.com/thinkrice/discover-us-rice/where-rice-grows/state/ca..., and also "Rice and Labor–The Asian Community in the Sacramento Valley" at https://www.pattyarnold.com/local.html So this provides a hypothesis for how the Mojave were managing or cultivating ankee millet - E. crus-galli as identified in the late 1890s (see https://lists.millets2023.space/pipermail/collab/2024-July/000561.html ) and the Yuma in a similar timeframe (see https://lists.millets2023.space/pipermail/collab/2024-July/000564.html ). Recall that these peoples practiced a recessional agriculture on the banks of the Colorado River before the flows of the latter were changed dramatically by the Hoover Dam. The hypothesis would be that ankee millet was descended from seed accompanying rice seed introduced maybe four decades earlier. Could the introduced Echinochloa spp. have spread from the Sacramento Valley to the lower Colorado in that time period? Native Americans in this region would likely have been familiar with the native Echinochloa muricata https://floranorthamerica.org/Echinochloa_muricata which is similar in appearance to E. crus-galli. E. muricata ("rough barnyard grass") is a useful plant, having apparently been used for thatching and matting ( https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/echinochloa/muricata/ ) and its seeds can be used for meal or flour (see ILPIN notes at https://wwv.inhs.illinois.edu/data/plantdb/detail/2902 ). Another question, following on the latter information, is whether the tall ankee millet identified by Thomas Williams as E. crus-galli ( https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Millets_%28IA_CAT8720151... ) might actually have been a variety of E. muricata, misidentified and since lost? Way out of my depth on much of this, but it would be interesting to see any research on the history of Echinochloa spp. in North America. Don Osborn, PhD (East Lansing, MI, US) North American Millets Alliance